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会计代写|高级财务会计代考adv Financial Accounting代写|PACC6000 Realised profits

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会计代写|高级财务会计代考adv Financial Accounting代写|PACC6000 Realised profits

会计代写|高级财务会计代考adv Financial Accounting代写|Realised profits

It is clear from the above discussion that the most important task in determining a company’s distributable profits is deciding what constitutes its realised profits less losses. ${ }^{22}$ Given the importance of the term, we might expect the Companies Acts to provide us with a comprehensive definition, but we would be extremely disappointed.

The Companies Acts provide both specific and general guidance; although the specific guidance is helpful, the general guidance is much less helpful. Let us look at the more detailed guidance first.

Section 275 of the Companies Act 1985 states that provisions are realised losses except for a provision made in respect of a fall in value of a fixed asset appearing on a revaluation of all the fixed assets of the company, whether including or excluding goodwill. This rather strange statement appears to mean that a fall in the value of one fixed asset may be treated as unrealised provided the aggregate value of fixed assets exceeds their aggregate net book value, thus taking a portfolio approach to fixed assets not often found in accounting. For this purpose, directors merely have to consider the values of all fixed assets and do not have to recognise those values in the financial statements although disclosure of what has been done is required. In the absence of such a general revaluation of fixed assets, a reduction in a previously unrealised profit would be treated as an unrealised loss unless the reduction is such that the revised value falls below the depreciated historical cost of the asset; in the latter case, the difference between the revised value and the depreciated historical cost is regarded as being a realised loss.

The Act also provides that where a fixed asset is revalued and depreciation is subsequently based on the revalued amount, the excess of depreciation based on the revalued amount over depreciation based on historical cost is to be treated as a realised profit. Thus the unrealised profit on revaluation is gradually converted into realised profit over the remaining useful life of the asset. Put another way, whatever is done in the profit and loss account, it is necessary only to charge depreciation based on historical cost in arriving at the realised profits of a company.
To give an example of such depreciation, let us suppose that a company purchased a fixed asset for $£ 50000$ when its expected useful life was ten years and its expected residual value was zero. Using the straight line method of depreciation, the annual charge would be $£ 5000$ and, after four years, the net book value would be $£ 30000$. If, after these four years, the asset were revalued to $£ 42000$, there would be an unrealised revaluation surplus of $£ 12000$, that is $£ 42000$ less $£ 30000$. The future annual depreciation charge in accordance with FRS 15 Tangible Fixed Assets, would normally be $£ 42000 \div 6=£ 7000$.

会计代写|高级财务会计代考adv Financial Accounting代写|Do the provisions make sense?

It is possible to question the philosophy on which the law of distributable profits is based and to press for changes to that law. Why, after all, should dividends be restricted to distributable profits defined in terms of realisation? ${ }^{26}$

Let us approach the question in two stages. First, why should dividends be restricted to profits and, second, if such a restriction is to apply, why should it relate to realised profits?
If a company’s directors are acting in the interests of its shareholders then the decision on whether or not a distribution is made should depend on the rates of return available to shareholders outside the company, compared with the rates of return available within the company. If the company has inferior investment opportunities to those of the shareholders, then the restriction of a dividend to the distributable profits of the company would lead to an inefficient allocation of economic resources. The position of creditors needs to be considered and there is a case for protecting the ‘buffer’ available to creditors. In practice it is likely that the buffer will only be of relevance if the company goes into liquidation or substantially reduces its scale of operations. In such circumstances the real protection for creditors is the amount which will be realised from the sale of assets. In the case of some assets, especially current assets, realisable values may be well in excess of book values, but in the case of many fixed assets, particularly of a failed company, book value might exceed net realisable value. Hence, it might be argued that the test that should be applied is to specify that after distribution the realisable value of the company’s assets exceed, possibly by a safety margin, the amounts due to creditors.
Even if we accept that dividends should be restricted to profits, why should the distribution be limited to realised profits?

It is sometimes argued that if a gain is realised, then the money is available to pay the dividend without the need to consider asset valuation. However, as Professor Egginton has pointed out, the argument has two weaknesses, one damaging and the other fatal! The damaging weakness is that conventional accounting often treats profits as realised well before cash is received. The fatal weakness is that even when profits have been received in cash, this cash will usually have been converted into other assets long before any dividends are paid. Hence, whether profits have been received or not, there is no guarantee that cash is available.
This is an area of the law which includes a number of poorly thought-out rules based on dubious reasoning, and accountants are forced to operate within an extremely unhelpful framework. It is of some consolation that in the vast majority of cases the limiting factor in determining a dividend is not the availability of distributable profits but the availability of cash and the alternative uses to which it may be put!

会计代写|高级财务会计代考adv Financial Accounting代写|PACC6000 Realised profits

高级财务会计代写

会计代写|高级财务会计代考adv Financial Accounting代写|Realised profits

从以上讨论可以清楚地看出,确定公司可分配利润的最重要任务是确定什么构成了其已实现利润减去亏损。22鉴于该术语的重要性,我们可能期望公司法为我们提供一个全面的定义,但我们会非常失望。

公司法提供具体和一般指导;虽然具体指导很有帮助,但一般指导的帮助要小得多。让我们先看看更详细的指南。

1985 年《公司法》第 275 条规定,准备金是已实现的损失,但在对公司所有固定资产(包括或不包括商誉)进行重估时出现的固定资产价值下降的准备金除外。这种相当奇怪的说法似乎意味着,如果固定资产的总价值超过其总账面净值,则一项固定资产的价值下降可能被视为未实现,因此采用了会计中不常见的固定资产组合方法。为此,董事只需考虑所有固定资产的价值,而不必在财务报表中确认这些价值,尽管需要披露已完成的工作。在没有对固定资产进行这种​​一般性重估的情况下,先前未实现利润的减少将被视为未实现损失,除非该减少导致修改后的价值低于资产的折旧历史成本;在后一种情况下,修改后的价值与折旧的历史成本之间的差额被视为已实现损失。

该法还规定,如果对固定资产进行重估,随后以重估金额为基础进行折旧,则以重估金额为基础的折旧超过以历史成本为基础的折旧的部分,应视为已实现利润。因此,重估时的未实现利润在资产的剩余使用寿命内逐渐转换为已实现利润。换句话说,无论在损益表中做了什么,只需根据历史成本计提折旧即可得出公司的已实现利润。
举一个这种折旧的例子,让我们假设一家公司购买了固定资产£50000当其预期使用寿命为十年且预期残值为零时。使用直线折旧法,年费用为£5000并且,四年后,账面净值将是£30000. 如果在这四年之后,资产被重估至£42000,将有未实现的重估盈余£12000, 那是£42000较少的£30000. 根据 FRS 15 有形固定资产,未来的年度折旧费用通常为£42000÷6=£7000.

会计代写|高级财务会计代考adv Financial Accounting代写|Do the provisions make sense?

有可能质疑可分配利润法所依据的哲学,并要求修改该法。毕竟,为什么股息应该限于根据实现定义的可分配利润?26

让我们分两个阶段来处理这个问题。首先,为什么股息应该限于利润,其次,如果要适用这种限制,为什么要与已实现利润相关?
如果公司的董事为其股东利益行事,那么是否进行分配的决定应取决于公司外部股东可获得的回报率与公司内部可获得的回报率的比较。如果公司的投资机会不如股东,那么将股利限制在公司的可分配利润中会导致经济资源的低效配置。需要考虑债权人的立场,并且有理由保护债权人可用的“缓冲”。在实践中,只有当公司进行清算或大幅缩减其经营规模时,缓冲才有可能发挥作用。在这种情况下,对债权人的真正保护是出售资产将变现的金额。对于某些资产,尤其是流动资产,其可变现价值可能远远超过账面价值,但对于许多固定资产,尤其是倒闭的公司,账面价值可能超过可变现净值。因此,有人可能会争辩说,应该应用的测试是指定在分配后公司资产的可变现价值超过(可能超过安全边际)应付债权人的金额。
即使我们接受股息应仅限于利润,为什么分配仅限于已实现的利润?

有时有人争辩说,如果实现了收益,那么这笔钱就可以用来支付股息,而无需考虑资产估值。然而,正如 Egginton 教授所指出的,这个论点有两个弱点,一个是破坏性的,另一个是致命的!破坏性的弱点是传统会计通常将利润视为在收到现金之前就已实现。致命的弱点是,即使以现金形式获得利润,这些现金通常在支付任何股息之前很久就已转换为其他资产。因此,无论是否收到利润,均不能保证有现金可用。
这是法律的一个领域,其中包括许多基于可疑推理的深思熟虑的规则,会计师被迫在一个极其无益的框架内运作。令人欣慰的是,在绝大多数情况下,决定股息的限制因素不是可分配利润的可获得性,而是现金的可获得性及其可能的其他用途!

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它有两个主要分支,微分和积分;微分涉及瞬时变化率和曲线的斜率,而积分涉及数量的累积,以及曲线下或曲线之间的面积。这两个分支通过微积分的基本定理相互联系,它们利用了无限序列和无限级数收敛到一个明确定义的极限的基本概念 。

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什么是计量经济学?
计量经济学是统计学和数学模型的定量应用,使用数据来发展理论或测试经济学中的现有假设,并根据历史数据预测未来趋势。它对现实世界的数据进行统计试验,然后将结果与被测试的理论进行比较和对比。

根据你是对测试现有理论感兴趣,还是对利用现有数据在这些观察的基础上提出新的假设感兴趣,计量经济学可以细分为两大类:理论和应用。那些经常从事这种实践的人通常被称为计量经济学家。

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